Even Since A Little Lamb Came Forward Saying That Cloning Of Mammals I

Indeed, even since a little sheep approached saying that cloning of warm blooded animals is conceivable the world has been in a condition of bewilderment. This implies if cloning a sheep is conceivable, what distance away are people? Is there another age of Dr. Frankensteins coming? I plan to respond to this inquiry, the way toward cloning, the positive and negative perspectives, moral viewpoints, and a creators perspective on cloning right back from the 1940's. The nuts and bolts be that as it may, are the initial segment. The way toward cloning is included. This procedure incorporates both incipient organism and grown-up DNA cloning. Undeveloped organism cloning, which was been around the longest, is the less muddled of the two. Incipient organism cloning isn't generally cloning for state. It is to a greater degree a twinning procedure. It has been utilized in mice since the late 1970's and different creatures since the 1980's. The procedure is actually very straightforward. An egg and sperm are combined in a petri dish. At the point when origination happens the zygote forms into a blastula. Subsequent to isolating into a few phases, a compound is added to expel the zona pelocide which advances cell division. The blastula is then isolated into independent cells, recoated, and afterward permitted to additionally create. Grown-up DNA cloning anyway is somewhat more confounded. Grown-up DNA cloning was believed to be inconceivable until Dolly was made. It includes the utilization of atomic exchange innovation (Human Cloning). It was utilized effectively before, particularly for undeveloped organism cloning, however never for primates (Baker). It is likewise critical that Robert J. Stillman and his universities at the George Washington Medical Center were the primary gathering to open up to the world to state it is conceivable. They took seventeen unusable undeveloped organisms (each had two sperm for preparation) and figured out how to part each effectively. They likewise wrote about the most ideal approaches to part them and to what extent they ought to be permitted to create. The entirety of the zygotes could turn into an embryo had they not been already imperfect (Human Cloning). The cutoff points on cloning are unsure at this point. The cutoff points on Dr. Wilmut were exceptionally noteworthy; it took him 277 attempts to create one Dolly (Motavalli). What's more, it isn't the logical furthest reaches that everybody is stressed over, its congressional cutoff points. Cart's maker, Dr. Wilmut is supportive of a cutoff for human cloning since he feels his advancement can be utilized somewhere else better (Dolly). Republican George Brown of California expressed, It is noteworthy that Congress followed the lead of the logical in talking about those issues. George E. Earthy colored expressed, It is critical that Congress followed the lead of mainstream researchers in talking about those issues. It made us check our impulses to go out and direct everything (Baker). While some contend its unscrupulous, its been said that a boycott or limitation would end some significant advantages, for example, human skin for bone marrow transplants (Baker). Cart anyway couldn't ca re less and ? is liberated from those cutoff points now, and from the danger of a revedezous with mint sauce, experiences her days in ovine extravagance in Scotland. Researchers state they intend to raise her some time or another soon. No cloning, however; this time, they will do it as our forefathers would have done it - by managed impregnation (Dolly). Individuals are part with regards to favoring one side on cloning. The positive parts of cloning are extremely various. Gina Kolata of the New York Times and creator of Clone has stated, I think many individuals who at first thought that it was disgusting presently feel it may not be so awful. We can make indistinguishable twins of ourselves and from that point we can make indistinguishable twins impervious to helps (Dolly). It is likewise truly conceivable that soon, ranches will have cloned animals that help people. It is conceivable that the proteins in a dairy animals' milk could regard such ailments as hemophilia. Cloning could cause a superior comprehension of the pregnancy procedure. It might even prompt an approach to stop unconstrained premature births. It could likewise help ladies who can not carry an embryo to term. Another advantage is the manner in which human morula create is like that of malignant growth, so it is accepted that if there

Short history of literature Essay Example for Free

Short history of writing Essay The reason for this course is to urge you to increase a knowledge into, and expansive consciousness of, the advancement of English writing from its apparent birthplaces in the ninth century until the finish of the nineteenth century. Consideration will be paid not exclusively to compelling scholars and developments, yet to subjects, for example, the impact of Greek folklore, religion, governmental issues, and the rã'le of Ireland. A few essayists, artists and dramatists considered are Langland, Chaucer, Malory, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Pope, Swift, Wordsworth, Keats, Byron and Dickens. I am sorry to the numerous eminent however expired journalists whom I ca exclude from this very short synopsis, and even to those whom I have included, for treating them fairly immediately. The course appears as a progression of talks, which structure however a hint of something larger, furnishing you with a way to your own exploration and study. You are urged to share the aftereffects of your investigations, helping your kindred understudies, yet the speaker. We are, all things considered, in a comparable situation, regardless of whether I am in charge. Assessment will be by concealed short composed articles. I will give a few instances of assessment inquiries toward the finish of this ideally supportive guide. The course commences by considering English literature’s genuinely late section into the universe of composing, a reality clarified by the pulverization of Roman Britain by uncouth German clans, and a progression of resulting attacks that made it hard to normalize the language and make significant level composition until the late Fourteenth Century. Normally, when the region later to be known as England settled down during the rule of Alfred, clerics started to make an interpretation of Latin writings into Anglo-Saxon/Old English. Churchmen had a favorable position, since they were proficient. Gildas, conceived around 500, composed The Destruction and Conquest of Britain in Latin, while Bede (who passed on in 735) composed the Eclesiastical History of the English People, additionally in Latin. They can't along these lines be incorporated as scholars utilizing Old English solely, in spite of the fact that their works were later converted into Old English. In spite of the fact t hat the account of Beowolf is the longest known epic sonnet in Old English, it is a Scandinavian story dating from the Eighth Century. English writing starts to characterize itself all the more obviously following the Norman attack, which brought about a minor transmogrification, with the importation of thousands of French words. By 1150, we can accordingly distinguish the outcome, known as ‘Middle English’. Here we have two wonderful works, one by the poorish cleric, William Langland (1332-1400), Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman, which is a strict excursion through profound quality, referencing the seven Deadly Sins of sloth, ravenousness, outrage, voracity, desire, jealousy and pride, reasoning that it is smarter to be acceptable than rich. Interestingly, his partner, Geoffrey Chaucer (1343-1400), was wealthy, working in senior government and as an ambassador, going on different European outings. He is said to have met Petrarch or Boccaccio. Positively, his prestigious Canterbury Tales appears to deceive components of Boccaccio in its naturalness and strategy. He composed a few works, in cluding Troilus and Cressida, and The Legend of Good Women. The following notable bit of work with which we bargain is Mallorys (c. 1405-1471) Morte d’Arthur, extrapolated from old French and some English stories, and written in early current English. One can genuinely say that it has been impregnated in the British national awareness. Numerous researchers imagine that Arthur was a Romanised Briton who battled against the German intruders. He most likely was, however in the time of abstract Chinese Whispers from that point forward, the story has presumably been impressively adorned. Before now moving into the Sixteenth Century, let us notice that the innovation of printing, which was taken up by William Caxton in 1476, bigly affected writing, in that it turned out to be progressively across the board among the common populace. Edmund Spenser’s (1552-1599) Faerie Queen is a model. Despite analysis that he composed it to pick up favor with Queen Elisabeth (he was granted some acceptable positions), it is an exciting bit of work, as the accompanying shows: ‘The steely head stucke quick till in his substance, Till with his cruell clawes he snatcht the wood, Furthermore, very into pieces broke. Forward streamed new A spouting waterway of blacke goarie blood, That suffocated all the land, whereon he stood; The streame thereof would drive a water-mill.’ Spenser was instructed at the Merchant Taylors’ School (which my school, St. Pauls, established in 1509, used to beat at rugger) and Cambridge, living a large portion of his expert life in Ireland, where he was Secretary to the Lord Deputy. His house was torched in the 1598 disobedience, so probably a portion of his life was energizing. One is slanted to ponder whether the Celtic pulse of Ireland affected, and animated, his composition. And afterward obviously we come to William Shakespeare (1564-1616), productive author of plays and works, child of a vendor in gloves and fleece, who had his own auditorium organization. He was knowledgeable in the works of art, having gone to Stratford Grammar School. It was to be sure the presentation of Grammar Schools during the rule of Henry VIII that had animated writing and learning, just as the impact of the Renaissance, effectively noticeable in Chaucer. Think about this, from the Merchant of Venice: ‘All that glisters isn't gold; Frequently have you heard that told: Numerous a man his life hath sold However, my outside to observe: Plated tombs do worms unfold.’ Shakespeare, so very affected by old style Greece and Rome (as were numerous prior and then afterward) imagined a great many new words and expressions, for example, ‘tower of strength’ and ‘assassination’. It was not until the German Romantics raised him to a practically supernatural abstract status that he was to become known around the world. He has produced debate just as acclaim. Samuel Johnson composed: ‘Shakespeare is quite a lot more cautious to please than to teach that he appears to compose with no good purpose’, while the incomparable Tolstoy composed of ‘repulsion, exhaustion and bewilderment’. Oddly, no unique work by Shakespeare is known to have endure. Some even feel that he might not have existed. Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593) is cut from a similar abstract stone as Shakespeare, in any event, having added to a portion of the latter’s plays. A kind of scholarly form of Caravaggio, he was wounded to death at the age of twenty nine, not long after the giving of a capture warrant, potentially for obscenity. It is conceivable that, had he lived longer, he would have been in any event too known as his homologue Shakespeare. Think about this, from his Dr. Faustus: ‘Was this the face that propelled a thousand boats, Also, consumed the topless towers of Ilium? Sweet Helen, make me godlike with a kiss. Her lips suck forward my spirit: see where it flies!’ It isn't hard to perceive any reason why, with authors, for example, Marlowe and Shakespeare, the Sixteenth Century was that of the screenwriters.  As we proceed onward to the finish of the Sixteenth Century and into the Seventeenth, we come to Ben Jonson (1572-1637 (not to be mistaken for Samuel Johnson).Although he was an understudy at Westminster School, he figured out how to be a bricklayer for a period, similar to his dad, just as a trooper. He is most popular for his masques, which instigated a gay environment of funniness, outfit, moving and music. Dramatization at that point went into decrease, inferable from the ascent of Cromwellian Puritanism. Meanwhile, the exposition had started to prosper as a scholarly structure, in the pretense of, entomb alia, Francis Bacon (1561-1626), additionally viewed as an early empiricist savant. In spite of the fact that this senior government figure, granted a lordship, was considered by some to be somewhat of a flunky, similar to Spenser, he truly was fairly acceptable. His most celebrated article is The Advancement of Learning. He appears to have accepted that information is power. Presently we get Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who learned at Oxford. His most notable sobriquet is that Man’s life is lone, poor, terrible, brutish and short, and his ‘Leviathan’ is a decent treatise on political way of thinking. He has been guaranteed, tragically in my view, by numerous global relations scholars to have been an advertiser of political authenticity/power legislative issues, when in reality his principle intrigue was in how to best run a nation at national level. He was a genuine scholarly, interpreting Thucydides’ Peloponnesian Wars, and the Iliad and Odyssey. Like such a significant number of English abstract individuals, he was defenselessly affected by Greece. We currently go to a spot of verse (in spite of the fact that Shakespeare’s poems unquestionably likewise qualify all things considered). Let us summarize John Donne, an ex-Roman Catholic, Cambridge man and legal advisor, (1572-1631) with the accompanying: ‘Tis time, ‘tis day; what however it be? O wither thou in this way ascend from me? For what reason would it be a good idea for us to rise on the grounds that ‘tis light? Did we rests in light of the fact that ‘twas night? Love, which regardless of dimness brought us here, Ought to regardless of light keep us together.’ At that point along came the ‘Cavalier poets’, one of whom, Robert Herrick, composed Counsel to Girls: ‘Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Bygone era is as yet a-flying. Furthermore, this equivalent blossom that grins today Tomorrow will be dying.’ These gay and joyful chaps made some hard memories during the Cromwellian autocracy. Old Pauline artist John Milton (1608-1674), a Cambridge man, threefold wedded, conflicted between opportunity and show, is maybe most popular for Paradise Lost. In the same way as other a very much obeyed Englishman, he went on the ‘Grand Tour’ of Europe, in any event, meeting Galileo. His works are unmistakably affected by Greece. Like Chaucer and Spenser, he held senior positions, yet was trapped in the crossfire of Puritanism (he worked for Oliver Cromwell) and th

I Suppose It Was Inevitable That We Have An Office Instagram

I Suppose It Was Inevitable That We Have An Office Instagram Nearly five years ago I added a Facebook share button to the blogs. Its strange to think that was so long ago, and also strange to think that it was once not obvious that people would come to the blogs any other way than navigating to or searching for MITAdmissions.org. Of course, its also strange to think I once had a full head of hair and wasnt exhausted by 10 PM every night. And this too shall pass. TLDR: we on  Instagram now. The account is curated primarily by my colleague Holly, who will be taking and posting many square, filtered photos of MIT. As some of you know, the admissions blogs originally grew out of independent student blogs which Ben collated and eventually centralized under this domain. Nowadays, our bloggers post here, but they also have continued to post elsewhere too, on different platforms. Ive never been that interested in connecting the two, mostly because I wanted to respect some distinction between what bloggers post for us and their personal accounts on other platforms intended for other audiences. However, when we were discussing starting an office Instagram, a few of the bloggers volunteered that they would be happy to let prospective students see their lives through the lens of these other platforms as well. So, as a resource (and a bit of an experiment of interest) heres a list of some places you can find some bloggers: Lydia K: Twitter tumblr Instagram Allan K: Tumblr Ceri R: Twitter tumblr Erick P: Twitter Instagram Michael C: Instagram Rachel D: Personal tumblr Cat tumblr Twitter Anastassia B: tumblr Vincent A: tumblr Again, these are all personal accounts for the bloggers. I dont exercise (and am not interested in exercising) any oversight or editing or guidance or anything over them. The purpose of this list is to just let you know where else they are on the web besides MITAdmissions.org in case you want to read about science and cats and sciencecats somewhere else.

Same Sex Marriages Should Be Legal - 2823 Words

The broader debate about whether same-sex marriages should be given legal recognition in Australia has been on for several years due to the conflicts between various groups regarding its legalisation. Although over 72% Australians support marriage equality, there are still about 14% who strongly oppose the same-sex institution of marriage (Same- sex marriage research, 2014). Various factors are accountable in influencing attitudes towards same-sex marriage, including, religious orientation (Olson, Cadge, Harrison, 2006; Walls, 2010), right-wing authoritarianism and masculinity. Understanding the differing attitudes of people towards homosexuals is crucial to not only reduce sexual prejudice, but also to gain a better insight towards same-sex marriage to close the discrimination gap between heterosexual couples and homosexual couples. We propose that the differing attitudes towards same-sex marriages can be understood in terms of intergroup conflicts or conflicting views between grou ps – support and opposition towards same- sex marriages (Herek, 2004). Shared opinions provide the psychological basis for intergroup conflicts (Bluic, McGarty, Thomas, Lala, Berdsen, Misajon, 2015). These can help understand differing attitudes that are formed towards gay and lesbian individuals (Herek, 2004). Inter group opinions help define identity, and what certain individuals stand for and against. Furthermore, these identities form a platform for collective action (Bluic et al. 2015).Show MoreRelatedSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1288 Words   |  6 Pages Marriage is not precisely the same as it used to be interpreted. For example, women used to be their husband’s property. Sometimes the women were forced to marry whoever their parents wanted them to marry and most of the time they couldn’t leave the marriage. Nowadays women have more freedom. They can vote, they can run their own business, and they can marry whichever man they want to. The laws change as the people’s mind change. As they get more comfortable with the id ea, they become more openRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal Essay1475 Words   |  6 PagesSame sex relationships relate to when a man or woman are attracted to someone of the same gender of themselves. It is being rejected as same gender marriage denies the obvious purpose between a man and a women which is procreation (Richardson-Self, 2012). Denying same sex couples the legal right to get married, could mean that they are being denied their basic human rights to enjoy human benefits (Richardson-Self, 2012). However, the opposing view is that if gay marriage was granted the legal rightsRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1403 Words   |  6 PagesSame-Sex Marriage â€Å"I now pronounce you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  At some point in a person’s life, they have heard or will hear those words. What follows, however, has changed somewhat over the years; although, the commitment has remained the same. Those words historically indicate that until the death of a spouse, that couple shall remain together. Who should be able to determine whom that spouse is for that person? Some people judge others for their sexuality and how it is affecting them, but they never stop andRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1144 Words   |  5 PagesGay Marriage There are many issues the revolve around same-sex marriage. Many issues like: Whether same-sex should be legalized and should there be an amendment on same-sex marriage? There are multiple side to view this, but gay marriage but in my opinion gay marriage is socially accepted. it should be legal and it does affect American teens in a broad spectrum of ways. There have been a lot of issues on whether or not same-sex marriage should be legal or not. According to Burns, â€Å" The unionRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal998 Words   |  4 PagesSame sex marriage ought to be legalized on the grounds that it is uncivilized and unmerited. Marriage is a commitment between two people that cherish one another. In almost every country and culture, marriage is a commitment of loyalty and love. Marriage is an authority contract gathering two individuals together, furnishing them with profits of holy matrimony such as tax cuts and clinical privileges. The debate throughout most countries today is whether or not the rights of these profits and commitmentsRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1659 Words   |  7 Pages Same-sex couples can hardly remember a time where they were not fighting for their right to marriage in the United States. After several court cases, California Proposition Six, and their struggle against the Defens e of Marriage Act (DOMA), same-sex couples found their way into U.S. society. Many misguided studies appealed to those opposing same-sex marriage, but after several years of integrating in society, same-sex couples found the support they were looking for. Before the Supreme CourtRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal899 Words   |  4 Pages In the United States, same sex marriage became legal nationwide on June 26, 2015, when the United States Supreme Court overruled the court in favor of same sex freedom and marriage. The victory of same sex marriage came to be recognized from the Obergefell v. Hodges case which was submitted when an American Ohio man was denied and regretted to get his name on his late husband’s death certificate. Same sex marriage has been a controversial social issue in the United States for several decades. SinceRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1491 Words   |  6 PagesSame sex marriage is one of the most debatable issues in the modern world. Marriage has been accepted as the social union between a man and a woman for the past thousand years. Homosexuality was viewed with scorn, and marriages among same sex couples were prohibited in most cultures across the globe. However, gay relationships are slowly obtaining acceptance, as homosexuals have come to be expressive in fighting their rights to marry in the early 90’s. As homosexuality grows in acceptance in theRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal892 Words   |  4 PagesLove Same sex marriage is now allowed in all states across the country. But it took years and years for this â€Å"issue† to be finally laid to rest. The first state to legalize same-sex marriage was Massachusetts in 2004. There was not a last state to legalize gay marriage. The supreme court realized how many states were now legalizing it, so they just had all of the states left legalize it as well. ProCon.org supplies information that â€Å"Twenty-six states were forced to legalize gay marriage becauseRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal2253 Words   |  10 Pages1776). The recognition of same-sex marriage is an issue influenced by numerous factors, and debates continue to arise over whether people in same-sex relationships have the right to marriage. Marriage provides many benefits, legally, financially, and personally. Same-sex marriage can open up those in same-sex relationships to tax benefits and financial demands comparable to those afforded to and required of peo ple in opposite-sex marriages. Same-sex marriage also gives them legal protections, such as

Dispute Settlement in Bilateral Investment Treaties - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2852 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? DISPUTE SETTLEMENT IN BILATERAL INVESTMENT TREATIES PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW Dispute Settlement In Bilateral Investment Treaties Introduction Foreign Investment plays an important role in economic development. Mostly developing countries want to encourage foreign investment. When foreign investor invests in a host country, he faces many risks some of which include: Unlawful expropriation of investment, currency transfer restrictions in host country, host nation treating national investor more favourably than the international investor. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Dispute Settlement in Bilateral Investment Treaties" essay for you Create order Such problems could affect the international investment relations. To resolve such conflicts there needs to be an international investment law. Since such a law is still in its development, Bilateral Investment Treaties serve as a source of International Investment Law. The Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) is a useful tool in creating a friendly environment for companies seeking to invest or do business in foreign countries. Since the late 1980s, BITs have come to be universally accepted instruments for the promotion and legal protection of foreign investments. The treaties, which aim to encourage foreign investment, provide investors with rights against states and state authorities that damage investment projects by, for example, breaking agreements, applying discriminatory regulations, revoking essential licenses or confiscating property. A BIT exists between two states and establishes a legal framework for the treatment of investment flows between the two nations. The parties to a claim under such a treaty are an investor of one state party (known as the investors home state) and the state where the particular investment was made. In the present article I will make an attempt to identify and interpret the aim and impact of BIT on international investment law, the procedural issues arising in such disputes and specifically focusing on dispute settlement in Indian BITs Origin and Aim of BIT As a major source of international investment law, bilateral investment provides a safe and neutral foreign investment.[1] other words, they address the security risks mentioned earlier. Most bilateral There is a standard mode, contains definitions for the terms of investors, investment, expropriation clause, and investment promotion and protection of investments and investment settlement disputes.[2] treatment are mutually transferred. Bits can be regarded as the Friendship Commerce and Navigation (FCN) Treaty successor. In particular, the United States sig ned FCNs and many European countries, such as France, Italy and Latin American countries to protect and promote legal trade relations and security of international legal standards for each other.[3] under those treaties. However, they did not include the issue of investment. Therefore, the European countries began to enter into bilateral and developing countries. The first modern BIT is signed between Germany and Pakistan in 1959.[4] Bilateral longer just export of capital and capital input reached between the country; a growing number of bilateral agreement between developing countries themselves. Bilateral investment treaties of international investment relations play an increasingly important role in all over the world, including South-South cooperation. Rapid increase in the 1990s saw the number of bits, and at the end of the decade, the universe of these treaties seem markedly different. Number of treaties quadrupled, rising from 385 in the late 1980s to 1857, in the late 19 90s. The end of 1999, out of the total 1,857 bits, 40 percent is developed and developing countries (and at the end of 1989 was 68%) among developing countries (compared with 10% in the end of 1989) 26 %, and the Central Eastern European countries between developing countries and developed countries in Central and Eastern European countries (compared to 13% at the end of 1989) of 15% and 6% (at the end of 1989 to 6%) 14 % Eastern European countries (no at the end of 1989)[5] currently only a few (11) developed bilateral investment relations between developed countries under the auspices of the reasons by some word processing by the OECD, which is all countries belong.[6] The basic elements of bilateral investment treaties, including its objectives, format and broad basic principles have not changed much over the years. Its main provisions typically deal with the scope and definition of foreign investment (in most cases, including tangible and intangible assets, direct and port folio investments, and existing and new investments); admission of investments; national and most-favored-nation treatment; fair and equitable treatment; guarantees and compensation for expropriation and compensation related to war and civil strife; guarantee funds, free transfer of capital and profit repatriation; subrogation of insurance claims; provisions and dispute settlement mechanisms, both national and State and investors in the country. In addition, some bilateral including transparency of relevant national laws and regulations; performance requirements; entry and residence of foreigners; general exceptions; people entering and establishing and extending national and MFN investments. Within these broad themes, on the specific content of BIT provisions vary widely, even By signing bilateral same country, reflecting the different approaches, as well as between the bargaining position. Over the years, with the development of the practice in some of the provisions of bilater al already tend to be more detailed. Modern bilateral retain a broad uniformity requirement. Almost all of the bilateral investment treaty covers four substantive areas: admission, treatment, collection and resolve disputes. The relevant provisions of the dispute between the parties, one of the investors and have treated other nationalities, most bits provide investment-related dispute between the United States and other countries nationals (ICSID Convention) settlement of international arbitration provisions of the Convention entered into force in 1966 Effect of bilateral international investment law The subject matter of improving bilateral international investment law and the protection of international law in two ways- shareholders.[7] International law does not recognize private corporate entities and international themes, but bit to change that. Through bilateral private companies and investors can sue the host country. Therefore, these bits as an important investor-S tate dispute settlement provisions. Bit has played an important role in regional and multilateral negotiations source treaty. For example, the impact of the World Bank Groups bilateral guidelines for the treatment of foreign direct investment, by September 1992 by the World Bank Development Committee and the Joint Ministerial IMF.[8] additional embodiments, the North American Free Trade Agreement (Chapter 11) provides Similar provisions line with most bilateral Conflicts of jurisdiction As investors worried about the dispute settlement mechanism of the potential risks of international investment agreements lead to an international dispute settlement mechanism, under the instigation of investors, despite the possibility of the existence of an investment contract between the investor and the host countrys internal forum clause. Such a clause may be specified for breach of contract dispute investment, the two sides should be based on domestic dispute settlement mechanism to re solve. Among them, the breach of such a contract is the problem, some recent ICSID tribunal held its requirements based on internal forum clause the pursuit of liquidated damages domestic dispute settlement procedures, does not preclude the use of a -State investors IIA dispute settlement mechanism. This is so, even if the alleged breach of contract is the central part of the host defense to establish a violation of investment protection obligations treaty.[9] Reasons behind these cases is that the national forum clause relates to breach of contract only and investors with claims related to the violation of the treaty country itself as an independent international legal obligations. Therefore, such a provision should not stand in violation of international obligations of legal claims in the international arena. This can be seen as a potential drawback to the host country, because it might be removed from the right that seems to be the domestic forum, its first pure contract dis putes. On the other hand, the same specious to argue that the purpose of protecting effect if the national forum clause prohibiting any action to host international challenges, IIA will be in and, to a considerable disadvantage of investors. It is this possibility has prompted the recent ICSID tribunal to assume the position of the actual scope of the above such provisions. An important issue in this case relates to a so-called umbrella clause. IIA obligation to respect the terms of the contract or any other form of investment, investment agreements and commitments or obligations between the host country. The effect of this provision is a violation of applicable investment contract constitutes a breach of the IIA. However, in the case of these provisions, the law is not uniform, has caused some uncertainty, the exact scope of these provisions. On the other hand, the umbrella terms arise out of some historical precedent for people to define their goals and purpose is to protect it self extends to disputes in the determination of the alleged breach of the IIA Host investment contracts (Sinclair, 2004). Thus, by the International Court of Arbitration of this explanation seems umbrella clause with its main goal is the same. In a recent decision, the Court has generally followed widespread impact umbrella treaty approach. However, in April 2005 decision (company Impregilo SpA v. Islamic Republic of Pakistan),[10] the court to limit its treaty jurisdiction involving the State itself, rather than the state-owned entity debt contract claim. In a recent case, the Union Groupement LESI DIPENTA V Algeria,[11] the court emphasized that the former treaty-based court, the contract must also constitute a violation of the treaty claims standard itself. In the absence of clear rules, umbrellas, breach of the host country can be used as the basis of another investor claims. Such claims are usually not directly processed by the investor state arbitration. On the con trary, one for a potential breach of the facts and the result has been met in terms of research and in BIT standard obligations. Accordingly, breach of contract issue has been raised as part of the background of the general levy, national treatment and fair and equitable treatment claims. Also involved in the so-called fork in the road use regulations may occur in international investment agreements. These select the forum clause requiring foreign investors to choose whether it is time to resolve a dispute forum domestic or international disputes. These provisions are specifically designed to prevent a set of facts multiple forums. However, the fork in the road driving requirement may not rule out the risk of shareholder initiated BIT arbitration to protect its rights, and investment (ie subsidiaries) launched a family dispute, in order to protect its contractual or other legal rights, including those arising from the IIA . In the face of such facts, several arbitration award has explained, fork in the road with provisions will result in loss of access to international arbitration only in domestic courts or administrative tribunals of the dispute, the parties are the same international disputes and litigation parties. In reaching this conclusion the ICSID tribunal may be a little to the fact that foreign investors may not be able to avoid being involved in a local program on investment. The host country may need to take defensive approach investors domestic law, such as the proposed regulatory administrative appeal against the ruling, or legal action to challenge the decision in a very short time where to start. In this case, it may be difficult for investors act as a free select the forum is denied the possibility of violations of international level on the part of the host country in the IIA are obliged to take any action. In doing so much to protect the value of the relevant agreement. In fact, the results of domestic processes themselves may cause un der IIA may further claims. By way of a literal and absolute investors obviously select the forum may be unfair. Therefore, the fork only under the terms of the international program at issue domestic proceedings, the parties agree that the situation fully, it seems to exclude the objectives of protection consistent with international investment agreements. Bilateral dispute settlement in India India has signed a 26-bit with the developed and developing countries in the world. These treaties in Indias economic growth has been very helpful. India has not yet signed the Convention ICSID, thus still holding the discretion of the dispute settlement provisions of the forum in its treaties. However, due to the ICSID Convention, a treaty was signed on the other hand, referring to ICSID arbitration are also given in many alternative treaty. However, at this point, it should be clear that India did not accept the advantages of ICSID arbitration treaty to overcome their debt provides mo re weight to an impromptu court. Most treaties famed similar manner requires a small change, as required by the terms of a party, but the basic feature of all the treaties consistent definition and content in respect of treaties. Also in accordance with the dispute resolution provisions of all treaties common mode. Dispute settlement has been divided into two items, namely: settlement of disputes between investors and the State party. dispute between the Parties. Initial efforts friendly consultations and negotiations, the first assertion failures, which can be hard to take up more than one program. Provisions to give some alternatives to resolve the dispute. Controversy (a) between investors and States Parties Investors are given an option to close the local court of the Parties, which may be Indian or foreign court, or investors may be close to the mediation of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law Mediation Rules (UNCITRAL). In addition, if the parties do not agree to any of the conciliation procedure, or in the case they fail, the parties may continue the proceedings. These programs can be started only in the ICSID ICSID Convention, as in one of the countries, and they all agreed. This provision seems to be of no use because India is not a party, the Convention ICSID, so this option can not be exercised. In addition, the two sides can to comply with the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules of the ad hoc tribunals. In a ddition, the structure and process of the court such articles are also described. Finally, the provisions of this decision have been considered final, unless the case is rejected, or one of the parties in the area, but failed to fulfill its obligations, to reject any form of appeal procedures. (B) the dispute between the Parties It refers to the possible interpretation of these treaties controversy. The explicit reference to the provisions of the dispute to the arbitration tribunal 3. Each member nominated by the parties and third nominate two members from third countries. He will be chairman of this arbitral tribunal. In this case the formation is impossible ICJ help find provisions. This courts decision, binding on both parties stand. Therefore, Indias bilateral do not give a complicated process, but given the alternatives to resolve the dispute, it is for the parties to choose a single meaningful conclusions. Conclusion Bilateral and multilateral investment t reaties have changed the way the global economy. Economic development of the border, resulting in a more or less removed to give members more areas to develop their potential. These treaties careful handling and investor protection are also concentrated in the amicable settlement of disputes. The developed countries of the world has gone through a common judicial proceedings under the ICSID Convention, due to disputes regarding these documents, to provide customers with the development of equal treatment. It helps a lot to protect investors and reduce the overall burden of dispute resolution at the same time. India is also moving in this development step, and has a good number of other countries in the treaty. One can argue that not signing ICSID Convention is a disadvantage in India, because most countries do not support a non-signatory, but at the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind that India is a developing country, a common dispute resolution Forum may not maintain th e perspective of the same thing, and the case decision. Thus, according to me is better, India retains its discretion in the choice of forum for dispute resolution. [1] Vandevelde J. Kenneth, Investment Liberalisation and Economic Development: The role of Bilateral Investment Treaties, Colombia Journal of Transnational Law, 1998, 507-514 [2] S. Jose Luis, Bilateral Treaties on the Reciprocal Protection of Foreign Investment, California Western International Law Journal, Spring 1994, p. 257 [3] Vandevelde J. Kenneth, The BIT Program: A Fifteen Year Appraisal, the Development, and Expansion of Bilateral Investment Treaties. American Society of International Law, 1992, p. 533 [4] Lauterpacht Elihu, International Law and Private Foreign Investment, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Spring 1997, p. 266 [5] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, World Investment Report 2000 [6] United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Bilateral Investment Treaties 1959-1999 at iii, U.N. Doc. UNCTAD/1TE/IIA/2 [7] Kishoiyian Bernard, The Utility of Bilateral Investment Treaties in the Formulation of Customary Internat ional Law, Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business, Winter 1994, p. 350 [8] Ibid [9] Alex Genin, Eastern Credit Limited v. Republic of Estonia, ICSID Case No. ARB/99/2, Award, 25 June 2001 (United States/Estonia BIT);; CompaÃÆ'Â ±iÃÆ'Â ¡ de Aguas del Aconquija Compagnie GÃÆ'Â ©nÃÆ'Â ©rale des Eaux v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Award, 21 November 2000 (France/Argentina BIT); Annulment Tribunal: CompaÃÆ'Â ±iÃÆ'Â ¡ de Aguas del Aconquija Vivendi Universal (formerly Compagnie GÃÆ'Â ©nÃÆ'Â ©rale des Eaux) v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Decision on Annulment, 3 July 2002 (France/Argentina BIT); Salini Construtorri S.p.A. and Italstrade S.p.A. v. Morocco, ICSID Case No. ARB/00/4, Decision on Jurisdiction, 23 July 2001 (Italy/Morocco BIT) [10] Decision in the jurisdiction, April 22, 2005 (ICSID Case No.: ARB / 02/2). [11] Decision on jurisdiction, August 10, 2005 (ICSID Case No.: ARB / 03/8)

Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties Free Essays

The role Alexander Hamilton and James Madison played on the first political parties. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison were both very important political figures in the early years of our nation and their paths led them to two different political factions, The Federalist Party and the Democratic Republican Party, respectively. The years after the American Revolution were very hard on most Americans. We will write a custom essay sample on Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties or any similar topic only for you Order Now The former colonies had huge debts to pay off from the war and the soldiers of the Continental Army, most of them farmers, returned home to find their farms in desperate need of renovation. With no money, increasing taxes and no way to pay off their debts, the farmers became desperate. They pleaded with the courts to give leniency on their debt re-payment, but their requests were hardly heard mostly unanswered. These factors led to Shay’s Rebellion, an upheaval of the American farmers in Massachusetts against the debtors courts and local governments.Shay’s Rebellion is important in American history because it convinced people that strong local governments were not able to effectively manage large national problems and that a strong national government could stabilize the currency, control and levy taxes and maintain public order. The writing of the Constitution was a direct result of these beliefs. The Constitutional Convention commenced in May of 1787 and was represented by fifty-five men from twelve states (Rhode Island was missing. ) The Constitution was written over the next five months and was sent to the states for ratification.This is the period of time in history when we first see two different â€Å"sides† emerge. There were two groups of people who came out of the Convention, supporters of the Constitution (Federalists) and those who opposed it (Anti-Federalists. ) The first faction, the Federalists were composed of many of the famed Founding Fathers, including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. They believed in a strong central government with the power to control trade, tax the citizens, declare war and make treaties. The Anti-Federalists were the opposition and believed in the power remaining with the states (Articles of Confederation) and were concerned that a federal government might ultimately lead to monarchy. During the initial stages of the Constitution, John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison were all considered Federalists. Together, the three wrote the Federalist papers, which were essays designed to defend the beliefs of a centralized federal government and the ratification of the Constitution. While there ere many writings at the time and still many opposed to the Constitution, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify and â€Å"The Constitution was now the law of the land. † (Faragher, et. al, page 199) In the meantime, the Anti-Federalists had proposed a long list of amendments to the Constitution that would protect the rights of the people against the power of the central government. James Madison was tasked with editing the 200 proposals, which eventually became the Bill of Rights. â€Å"The Constitution was authored by the Federalists, but the Bill of Rights is the most important legal legacy of the Anti-Federalists. (Faragher, et. al, page 202) After the ratification, Alexander Hamilton continued to support the Federalists and became the first Secretary to the Treasury. Thomas Jefferson was appointed as the Secretary of State. Under the presidency of George Washington, political differences between Hamilton and Jefferson began, including opposing beliefs in foreign policy. This became very clear when France and Great Britain broke out in war in 1793. Hamilton believed that a good relationship with Great Britain was extremely important since they were the United States’ most important trading power. Jefferson and supporter James Madison wanted international independence which would evolve through its own expansion in the western part of North America. This naturally meant good relations with France, since they were Britain’s biggest enemy. Hamilton also believed in a Bank of the United States but was opposed by Jefferson and Madison. The faction sharing the beliefs of Jefferson and Madison became known as the Democratic Republican Party. â€Å"The framers of the constitution envisioned a one-party state in which partisan distinctions would be muted by patriotism and public virtue. (Faragher, et. al, page 211) However, even in our early days of nationhood, different factions of beliefs would ensue. As Founding Fathers of our nation, both Hamilton and Madison played large roles in the evolution of political parties and many of the foundations of these parties still remain today.Bibliography John Mack Faragher, Mari Jo Buhle, Daniel Czitrom, Susan H. Armitage. Out of Many Sixth Edition, Volume 1, (2009) http://www. foundingfathers.info, The Federalist Papers Online http://www. foundingfathers. info, Founding Father Family Trees and Bios How to cite Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties, Papers

Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties Free Essays

The role Alexander Hamilton and James Madison played on the first political parties. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison were both very important political figures in the early years of our nation and their paths led them to two different political factions, The Federalist Party and the Democratic Republican Party, respectively. The years after the American Revolution were very hard on most Americans. We will write a custom essay sample on Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties or any similar topic only for you Order Now The former colonies had huge debts to pay off from the war and the soldiers of the Continental Army, most of them farmers, returned home to find their farms in desperate need of renovation. With no money, increasing taxes and no way to pay off their debts, the farmers became desperate. They pleaded with the courts to give leniency on their debt re-payment, but their requests were hardly heard mostly unanswered. These factors led to Shay’s Rebellion, an upheaval of the American farmers in Massachusetts against the debtors courts and local governments.Shay’s Rebellion is important in American history because it convinced people that strong local governments were not able to effectively manage large national problems and that a strong national government could stabilize the currency, control and levy taxes and maintain public order. The writing of the Constitution was a direct result of these beliefs. The Constitutional Convention commenced in May of 1787 and was represented by fifty-five men from twelve states (Rhode Island was missing. ) The Constitution was written over the next five months and was sent to the states for ratification.This is the period of time in history when we first see two different â€Å"sides† emerge. There were two groups of people who came out of the Convention, supporters of the Constitution (Federalists) and those who opposed it (Anti-Federalists. ) The first faction, the Federalists were composed of many of the famed Founding Fathers, including Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. They believed in a strong central government with the power to control trade, tax the citizens, declare war and make treaties. The Anti-Federalists were the opposition and believed in the power remaining with the states (Articles of Confederation) and were concerned that a federal government might ultimately lead to monarchy. During the initial stages of the Constitution, John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison were all considered Federalists. Together, the three wrote the Federalist papers, which were essays designed to defend the beliefs of a centralized federal government and the ratification of the Constitution. While there ere many writings at the time and still many opposed to the Constitution, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify and â€Å"The Constitution was now the law of the land. † (Faragher, et. al, page 199) In the meantime, the Anti-Federalists had proposed a long list of amendments to the Constitution that would protect the rights of the people against the power of the central government. James Madison was tasked with editing the 200 proposals, which eventually became the Bill of Rights. â€Å"The Constitution was authored by the Federalists, but the Bill of Rights is the most important legal legacy of the Anti-Federalists. (Faragher, et. al, page 202) After the ratification, Alexander Hamilton continued to support the Federalists and became the first Secretary to the Treasury. Thomas Jefferson was appointed as the Secretary of State. Under the presidency of George Washington, political differences between Hamilton and Jefferson began, including opposing beliefs in foreign policy. This became very clear when France and Great Britain broke out in war in 1793. Hamilton believed that a good relationship with Great Britain was extremely important since they were the United States’ most important trading power. Jefferson and supporter James Madison wanted international independence which would evolve through its own expansion in the western part of North America. This naturally meant good relations with France, since they were Britain’s biggest enemy. Hamilton also believed in a Bank of the United States but was opposed by Jefferson and Madison. The faction sharing the beliefs of Jefferson and Madison became known as the Democratic Republican Party. â€Å"The framers of the constitution envisioned a one-party state in which partisan distinctions would be muted by patriotism and public virtue. (Faragher, et. al, page 211) However, even in our early days of nationhood, different factions of beliefs would ensue. As Founding Fathers of our nation, both Hamilton and Madison played large roles in the evolution of political parties and many of the foundations of these parties still remain today.Bibliography John Mack Faragher, Mari Jo Buhle, Daniel Czitrom, Susan H. Armitage. Out of Many Sixth Edition, Volume 1, (2009) http://www. foundingfathers.info, The Federalist Papers Online http://www. foundingfathers. info, Founding Father Family Trees and Bios How to cite Hamilton Madison’s Role in the First American Political Parties, Papers

Odyssey Analysis Essay Example For Students

Odyssey Analysis Essay There are many challenges throughout the Odyssey the most significant being his arrogance that Odysseus must overcome in order to reach home. In book 9, beginning with line 113 Odysseus and his men begin a journey in the land of the Kyklops. This set of challenges for Odysseus shows the reader the battle between arrogance and wisdom within Odysseus. The choices that Odysseus makes during this portion of his journey home will help him to realize his arrogance and the downfalls of yielding to it, which he must overcome to regain his kingdom and property from the suitors. When Odysseus first decides to explore the nearby island he makes a wise decision to take only his own ship and company. The reason he does this is to â€Å"find out what the mainland natives are- for they may be wild savages, and lawless, on hospitable and God fearing men†. This proves to be a wise decision because the natives are Kyklops. Kyklops have no laws, no councils, and no interest in hospitality or civility of any kind. A reader could reasonably believe that Odysseus decision to only bring his own ship and company prolongs the lives of the men he left behind. Beginning with line 201 in book 9 Odysseus begins to describe the type of men that resides in the cave he is now in. He describes the absentee resident of the caves by what he sees in the cave. He describes the resident as being in the cave alone, remote, knowing nothing but savagery. He goes further to call him a huge brute. Once again Odysseus shows his wisdom in leaving all but twelve of his men at the ship to go ahead. In line 229 through 231 he states â€Å"for in my bones I knew some towering brute would be upon us soon- all outward power, a wild man, ignorant of civility†. His men want to plunder and leave before the resident returned. This desire is in direct contrast to what they did in Ismarus when he advised them to leave Ismarus immediately with their riches. Furthermore, Odysseus show his arrogance when he ignores the advice of his men to take the plunder and leave but instead opts to stay and wait for the caveman to return home to test the owners hospitality. Odysseus makes a costly mistake in his decision, all of the evidence he sees in the cave points to a savage and uncivil being, but Odysseus, in his arrogance, elects to wait for the caveman’s return anyway. A reader could use these instances to support a theory that it is better to â€Å"quit while you’re ahead†. Starting in line 273 when the Kyklops sees Odysseus and his men. The one eyed giant is curios at first as to who they are. He begins in line 274 by asking â€Å"strangers who are you? And where from? † Odysseus responds to the questions of the one eyed giant by describing in great detail where they are from and who they are but becomes arrogant in the end of his description by instructing the Kyklops on what is acceptable behavior according to Zeus. Polyphemus, the one-eyed giant, responds by insulting Odysseus by calling him a â€Å"ninny†. This is a sign of arrogance and disrespect because of the brave and heroic things Odysseus did in the Trojan War. By insulting Odysseus and disregarding without thought of the statement made by Odysseus concerning the â€Å"care of the Gods courtesy†. Polyphemus portrays two characteristics of his personality; brute strength and a lack of respect for the Gods. In lines 307 through 311 Odysseus tells Polyphemus that Poseidon had destroyed his ship but that he and his men had been spared. .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .postImageUrl , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:hover , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:visited , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:active { border:0!important; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:active , .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197 .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud89ebe44279aecd0994eb7efe8e13197:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: How would you Describe a Leader and Leadership EssayThese lines provide a few important details. The first detail is the respect that is shown for the powers of Poseidon by Odysseus. It also gives warning to the one-eyed giant that these men were spared by Poseidon and therefore should be spared by the Kyklops. Another significant factor is it foreshadows the fate of Odysseus ships and crew, while singling out Odysseus himself. In lines 465 to 475 Odysseus describes how he tied sheep together three abreast and slung a man under each in order to escape in the morning when Polyphemus lets his flock out in the morning to graze. Special attention was made of the fact that Odysseus took the choice of the flock, the woolliest ram, for him to escape under. He does not take the best of the flock out of arrogance but instead to show his position of leadership and nobility. That morning when the giant let his flock out to graze Odysseus and his ram were the last to escape the captivity of Polyphemus. This symbolizes that Odysseus had a greater concern for the welfare of his men than he did for himself, a trait of a great leader and a hero. After escaping from Polyphemus’ cave Odysseus allows his arrogance to overtake his wisdom and shouts taunts at the one-eyed giant. The Kyklops responds by breaking away a hilltop and throwing it at the departing ship of Odysseus almost beaching the target. Even thou Odysseus men beg him not to continue to taunt the monster; Odysseus can not overcome his arrogance and shouts his true name and identity to Polyphemus. Odysseus gives his identity to Polyphemus not out of arrogance as with his name but merely as a way of the way things were done in that period of time. This lack of wisdom and display of arrogance brings upon him the wrath of Poseidon on behalf of his son, Polyphemus. Odysseus learns throughout this portion of his journey that it is wiser to be humble than it is to be arrogant towards others. In every instance where Odysseus, his men, or Polyphemus become arrogant it cost the offender a price. Odysseus arrogance cost him all of his men and ships, he carriers this lesson with him and learns from it. When Odysseus shows his humility he fares better than when he lets his arrogance win the day. The lesson of arrogance enables him to defeat the disrespectful and arrogant suitors so that he can regain control of his kingdom and property.

US Government 1789

Instant Coffee Production The WritePass Journal

Instant Coffee Production Introduction Instant Coffee Production IntroductionProcessing Packaging and shelflifeSafety and microbiological aspectsQuality controlSpoilagePhysical and sensory propertiesLegal aspectsReference:Related Introduction Instant coffee is an aromatic beverage, consisting of water with additional compounds extracted from coffee beans during brewing, which have then been dehydrated into a soluble coffee form. Coffee beans are seeds from coffee fruit, selected from different sources (location and seasons). The blend could give a particular taste of the brand and also help to reduce the risk of shortage or price fluctuation from a single raw material supplier. Coffee arabica produces the finest coffee, while coffee robusta produces a strong but inferior coffee. Processing There are two main primary processing methods: the unwashed or dry process, which produces naturals, and the washed or wet process, which produces washed coffees. In the dry process the ripe cherries are dried in their entirety after which they are mechanically decorticated to produce the green bean. In the washed or wet process the ripe cherries are pulped and fermented to remove the sticky sugary coating called mucilage that adheres to the beans (this can also be done mechanically), and the beans are then washed and dried. This lactic fermentation involves the action of Leuc. mesenteroids, L. berivs and Streptococcus faecalis. In all procedures the parchment skin is later removed mechanically after drying. Better flavour is achieved if the beans are processed by the wet method rather than the dry method when removing the hull, Wet processing helps in developing soft buttery notes in the cup, unlike the thick robust notes that are observed in the average robusta cup. Beans are mixed by weight portion and no special arrangement of mixing is required. Many imported beans are shipped green, as can be stored in the state with little loss of quality, before roasting. The roasting operation develops the characteristic flavour and headspace aroma. There are two stages of transformation in which the 12% of moisture is driven off and pyrolysis occurs, with the swelling of the beans. Roasting time determines classification as a light, medium or dark roast. The first stage take up about 80% of the roasting time with green beans gradually changing from a straw colour to a pale brown. The second stage of roasting leads to the rapid darkening, emission of oily smoke and crackling sounds, with the chemical composition of the beans rapidly changing. A porous microstructure is formed and the density of coffee bean is almost halved after roasting (from ca. 1.3 g.ml-1 to ca. 0.7 g.ml-1).   The degree of roasting is key for quality consistency of the final product. This can be measured by the colour or density of the roasted beans. Roasting time can be set for predetermined roasting degree. The roasters currently available for roasting operations include vert ical rotating bowl roasters, vertical static drum roasters, horizontal rotating drum roasters, fluidized bed roasters and pressure roasters. Horizontal roasting drum roasters are the most popular, with either a perforated wall or a solid wall. Grinding reduces the size of the coffee bean to small particles. A multi-roller can be used, where the coffee beans pass through up to four stages of size reduction, with the gap between rollers decreasing with each stage. Extraction involves the separation of the soluble solids and volatile aroma/flavour compounds are extracted from ground coffee granules, using hot water as the solvent. An example of such an extractor is a percolation battery extraction device, or a counter-current continuous screw extractor, where a pressurized water feeding system can be used to enhance extraction efficiency. Solvent extraction is not a single stage operation but involves loading the coffee, spraying with solvent (water) until the solute content is reduced to the economical minimum, and excavated. In the production of instant coffee, a series of extraction tanks are linked together to form an extraction battery. Hot water is fed into the take containing roasted granules that are almost extracted and then flows through the various tanks in series before it is withdrawn from the freshly charged tank. Both spray drying and freeze drying are commonly used for instant coffee manufacturing. Spray drying operates at a high temperature, providing an efficient and economic method for the dehydration of coffee solution. However freeze drying has a much better retention of flavour/aroma compounds, but at a relatively higher cost. Freeze drying depends on low temperatures (below -20oC) and the absence of drying air during the dehydration process. The complete process includes freezing, granulation, and then freeze-drying. The slower the highly concentrated coffee is frozen, the larger the ice crystals formed, essential in preserving the best possible colour as well as increasing the solubility of the final product. A band freezer is commonly used, where the band is divided into four to six temperature zones, each of which are cooled by to the required temperature. The coffee extract is then transported through the temperature zones for controlled freezing, leaving the band as flakes at a temperature of approximately -40oC. These frozen flakes are then ground up and fed into a granulator with a built-in perforated plate. The flakes are granulated and passed through holes in the plate, sorting the granules into various sizes. The correctly sized granules are passed though a vacuum lock and a gate lock into the f reeze-drying cabinet, and emptied into a hopper. Below the pressure of 4.6mm Hg, the ice in the coffee goes directly from a solid to vapour without melting. This kind of evaporation is called sublimation. Dried coffee has little or no aroma, therefore, manufacturers usually recover the aromatic volatiles during the bean grinding or extraction processes, and spray them back onto the product just before the final filling operation. This will provide a coffee-like fragrance when the pack is opened. Packaging and shelflife The freeze-dried coffee enters the packaging section via a hopper and is automatically weighted, filled into polyethylene bags, and packed into cardboard cartons for bulk export, or filled into glass jars and labelled. As coffee oil is usually used as a carrier for the aromatic volatiles, it is necessary to fill the packs under a blanket of inert gas such as CO2 to reduce the risk of oxidation. Sealed packaging is necessary for volatile compound retention and to prevent moisture pick-up. High moisture content reduces coffees shelf life.   At 7% moisture content, instant coffee may start to ‘cake’. Glass bottles or metal tins often used as containers for instant coffee. Beans that are at equilibrium and are inactive would have a moisture content of well below 12.5%. Beans with a high moisture content could be very actively respiring, giving up moisture and undergoing changes both physically and intrinsically. Physically, there would be a fading in colour and, depending on the moisture content, the temperature and the humidity of the surrounding area, this could result in bleaching and mould growth. Intrinsically, the cup quality could fade from a clean, strong and neutral cup to a woody, aged and musty cup. Safety and microbiological aspects A particular food safety issue for coffee is concern over the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin that can cause kidney damage, and is a possible human renal carcinogen. In coffee, OTA is produced by fungi of the Aspergillus genus (A. ochraceus, A. carbonarius, A. niger). It is mostly concentrated in the husk, which suggests that naturals (coffees dried in the fruit) are most at risk of contamination. In the European Union the following maximum limits apply to finished coffee products, effective 1st March 2007: roasted coffee 5 ppb (parts per billion); soluble coffee 10 ppb. The HACCP process can be used to establish where OTA enters the system and where the fungi causing OTA first appears. HACCP is a management system in which food safety is addressed through the analysis and control of biological, chemical and physical hazards from raw food material production to manufacturing and consumption. Careful inspection of visual appearance and any mouldy or earthy smells can be a useful tool for checking for the presence of OTA.†¨The monitoring of †¨Pesticide residues in coffee is also a vital aspect of an HACCP system. Furthermore, coffee growers maintain chemical registers that detail, in chronological order, the type and quantities of all chemicals used and the timing of their application. Hydrocarbon contamination is usually caused by jute coffee bags because of the batching oil used to soften the jute fibres before spinning. There have been instances of contaminated oil being used (old engine oil for example), leading to The International Jute Organization has established specifications (IJO Standard 98/01) for the manufacture of jute bags to be used in the food industry. Quality control The supplier must meet the contract specification of the buyer. The seller and buyer jointly established the quality parameters, which the seller is expected to respect continuously, shipment after shipment. Instant coffee produced must be suitable for human consumption, free from extraneous matter such as live pests and moulds, fully conform to the contract description or selling sample, with uniform quality, and be clean ‘in the cup’ i.e. free from abhorrent flavours. Instant coffee is graded according to quality.   For the United States market, undergrade coffee is any type of coffee that grades below GCA type 6 (120 defects per 370 grams The US market prohibits imports below this grade, however most other markets do not normally specify that particular grades of coffee should not be imported, relying instead on general food and hygiene regulations. However, the ICO has introduced a set of worldwide minimum export standards in an attempt to remove the lowest coffees from the market altogether. The higher risk of mould and therefore OTA occurring in lowgrades is also likely to reduce the demand for such coffee. Improper processing techniques, including use of incorrect equipment and poor handling, contribute to defects in quality. Major off-tastes can occur as a result, including raw/green, fruity, overripe, fermented, chemical, earthy, and oily flavours. Problems that may occur include: The picking of overripe beans lowers cup quality leading to a fermented and ‘medicinal’ flavour, due to the deterioration of the fruit. A putrid, rotting off-taste may be caused due to microorganisms entering damaged beans if the coffee beans are not sorted on size, leading to the beans being cut during pulping. Black beans or ‘stinkers’ may be formed affecting quality. The water used for washing, as for all the stages of processing, should be clean to ensure the quality of the end product. Unclean water or water contaminated with fine silt, and recirculated water with a high solid content, could cause earthy, fruity or fermented and other off-tastes. During the preparation of the robusta beans, spreading the fruit in thick layers with inadequate stirring and raking could result in mould formation. This can adversely affect the visual appearance and the cup quality of the cherry beans. Lack of protection from rain and night dew during drying can also cause mould growth. Spicy and chemical off-tastes could be due to packaging in poor quality bags or bags in which spices or fertilizers have been packed earlier. Storing coffee with spices, chemicals, fertilizers or fungicides could also cause these off-tastes. Coffee beans easily absorb odours that could lower their aromatic quality. Based on visual quality, robusta beans could be categorized into three grades: above FAQ (fair average quality), FAQ (average) and below FAQ. Based on liquor quality, robusta beans could be classified as follows: Fine and special, where the liquor quality is soft, smooth and buttery, with good body, hardly any bitterness, and clean. This quality can be seen in robusta coffees which are washed and processed with care, in robusta beans which are grown at high altitudes and under shade, and in plant strains which have the inherent characteristics of lower caffeine content, softness and mellow flavour notes. Good, where the liquor quality could be described as good body, neutral, light bitterness, clean, with a hint of chocolate notes. Average, with a cup quality of fair body, fair neutrality, average bitterness, and clean. Below average, where the liquor, though of fair body, has harsh notes of the robusta fruit, is bitter though clean, and is flat with no flavour notes. Poor, a cup which is unclean, having medicinal, phenolic or rioy off notes, or strong harsh robusta notes, with or without body, bitter and unpleasant to the taste. What has been said above is not a universal methodology followed by all robusta producing origins. It is only a means to explain the quality attributes that could be encountered in a robusta cup and the manner in which these attributes could be classified. Individual buyers have their own classification and evaluation methods, but usually the attributes and ratings will be comparable to those above. ISO 9001 is a process-based quality management system that organizations can use to demonstrate the consistent quality of their products to customers and concerned regulatory institutions. When an organizations quality management system complies with ISO 9001 and when the coffee is processed in accordance with these procedures, then the quality management system (not the product) can be ISO 9001 certified. Spoilage Physical and sensory properties Robusta beans have robust but clean strong and fruity flavours, and are often used in instant coffee preparation. Arabica coffee may also be used, and generally produce good liquors with acidity and flavour. However, these organoleptic properties can be affected by a number of factors. Poor visual colour in instant coffee, such as a whitish appearance could result in a low value. This indicates a poor processing technique, which could result in a fruity or fermented off-taste. Broken beans, on the other hand, could result not only in a high roasting loss, but also in charring of the beans and a poor cup quality, leading to off-tastes being produced, affecting the final soluble coffee product. The defect count is the measured presence or absence of defects such as blacks, browns, greens, faded and bleached beans, insect damaged beans, sour beans and extraneous matter such as twigs, sticks or stones. Maillard browning is desirable in the manufacture of coffee, causing beneficial sensory changes, as well as antimutagenic () and antioxidative properties (?). This enzymatic browning is catalysed by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase and can contribute to the overall acceptability of coffee. Products of enzymatic browning play a number of physiological roles i.e. melanonins produced may exhibit antibacterial and antifungal properties(?). Added ingredients: chicory added â€Å"French† coffee, fig added â€Å"Viennese† coffee Volatile components give coffee its characteristic fragrance. There are more than 600 classified flavour compounds in instant coffee. Heat vaporises them into the air. Instability of the volatile compounds can cause flavour of roasted coffee to deteriorate quickly as it cools, or if it is kept hot too long, evaporation causes the loss of many of these compounds and their flavours. Bitter substances – organic acids which give a bitter, slightly sour taste to coffee. Chlorogenic acid equals about 4% of roasted coffee beans, along with caffeine and polyphenols compounds. Coffee should never be boiled as these temperatures increase the solubility of the bitter compounds, resulting in unpalatable coffee. Coffee contains Methylxanthines such as caffeine and theobromine. These are compounds which stimulate the central nervous system, and have either positive or negative effects, depending upon the individual, including increased exercise performance, temporarily increased heartbeat, metabolism, stomach acid, sleep disturbance, and dilation and/or constriction of certain blood vessels. Diuretic effects, causing increased urination. Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, fatigue, moodiness and depression. Legal aspects The ICO council passed Resolution 420 (May 2004) which recommends voluntary targets for the minimum quality export standards for both arabica and robusta. The ICOs Coffee Quality-Improvement Programme calls on producing members to endeavour to restrict the export of arabica coffee with more than 86 defects per 300 g sample or robusta coffee with more than 150 defects per 300 g. The Programme also asks members to endeavour not to allow arabica or robusta of any grade to be exported whose moisture content is below 8% or above 12.5%. For the coffee year October 2009 – September 2010 the ICO reported that 24 exporting members, accounting for nearly 59 million bags or nearly 60% of all 2009/10 exports, provided information on the quality of the coffee they exported. Of these exports over 57 million bags (96%) were classified as being within the Resolution’s defects and moisture targets. The split arabica/robusta was 92% arabica and 8% robusta. Coffee can be decaffeinated by the use of a solvent, water, or super-critical cardon dioxide. Reference: Brennan, J. (2006). Food processing handbook. 1st Edition. UK: Wiley-VCH. Brown, A. (2008). Understanding food: principles and preparation. 1st Edition. USA: Thomson Learning, Inc. Clarke, R., and Macrae, R. (1985). Coffee volume 1: chemistry. 1st Edition. USA Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. Dalgleish, J. (1990). Freeze-drying for the food industries. 1st Edition. UK: Elsevier science publishers Ltd. Goldblith, S., Rey, L., and Rothmayr, W. (1975). Freeze drying and advanced food technology. 1st Edition. USA: Academic Press Inc. Haarer, A. (1962). Modern coffee production. 2nd Edition. UK: Ebenezer Baylis and Son, Ltd. Hone, A. (1993). Soluble coffee: technical and marketing opportunities and constraints for origin producers. NRI marketing series 8. UK: Natural Resources Institute. Marshall, C. (1983). The world coffee trade. 1st Edition. UK: St Edmundsbury Press. Tull, A. (1989). Food science and technology. 1st Edition. UK: Oxford University Press. Streeten, P., and Elson, D. (1971). Diversification and development: the case of coffee. 1st Edition. USA: Praeger Publishers, Inc. intracen.org/coffee-guide/quality-control-issues/phenolic-taste-rio-flavour-fermented/ fao.org/ ipfsaph.org/servlet  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   /CDSServlet?status=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~~ coffee-ota.org/ fda.gov/Food/default.htm fda.gov/Food/default.htm coffeeinstitute.org/the-q-coffee-system.html

How spiritual and religious guides can influence the pursuit of Essay

How spiritual and religious guides can influence the pursuit of happiness - Essay Example Despite scholars presenting different definitions and causes of happiness, it is evident that the religious and spiritual perspective carries the weight towards achievement of happiness while compared to other major factors like wealth (Quinn,  2014). That has as a result made various individuals to attach spiritual and religious connotations to happiness. As such, how spiritual and religious guides can influence a person’s pursuit of happiness.The thesis of the paper seeks to outline different measures that can be implemented in order to achieve happiness.Although there is no universal definition of happiness, it can be seen that spiritual and religious guidescanconnected to spirituality. Many people struggle to search for happiness and there are many connotations attached to this concept particularly the aspect of spirituality. Individuals constantly sought for economic gains to satisfy their happiness and despite the level of economic power, happiness seems to evade these people. That serves as a clear identification that achievement of happiness is far beyond the economic strength of an individual. It results from the fact that happiness fails to possess an economic value (Borchard,  2011). There are some religious people who believe that only eternal spiritual happiness is possible after death. However, despite such believe that real happiness will result upon death; these believers live a religious and spiritual life on earth that translate to happiness before death strikes. The reason behind achieving happiness during their lifetime is attributed to the conception that real happiness lies on the wait. Some individuals have identified India as a potential sour ce of happiness. Although India has numerous negative traits associated with the rapid rate of industrialization, high population, and the lack of proper waste management, it remains a center for finding happiness.Apart from

Statistics project what factors affects the happiness of a country - 1

What factors affects the happiness of a country - Statistics Project Example influenced by the economic, social, political, psychological and geographical factors such as Life Expectancy, Well-being, Happy Life Years, Footprint, Happy Planet Index, Population, GDP and governance ranking (Michael 21) and (Neil 32). The aim and objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between the factors listed and the level of happiness of a country (Helliwell et al, 54). It therefore applies the quantitative analysis methods to show how the different factors are related to the level of happiness of the counties (Joop & Hessel 28). This study applies three statistical methods in the analysis of the relationship between countries’ happiness and the factors that cause happiness. The two methods are linear correlation analysis, statistical descriptive summary and graphical comparison (James 43). The data used for this study was collected as secondary data from www.happyplanetindex.org/data/). The dataset already has data in quantifiable metrics such that they can be used for quantitative data analysis. The data analysis methods applied in this study will be quantitative and descriptive. All the independent variables are in numerical forms except the country and the regions (McMahon 54). The relationship between each country’s happiness and the rest of the variables is tested through the correlation analysis (Gregg 32). The correlation coefficients demonstrate the link between happiness ranking for all the countries and each of the individual independent variables. The result for the linear correlation analysis is shown in table 1 below The third measurement taken in the analysis is the weight of influence of each of the variables on the level of happiness foe all the countries. The countries were divided into two categories, high happiness and low happiness countries. The ratios are taken as the average values of each dependent variable for the high happiness countries divided by the average equivalent for the low happiness countries

The role of a Medical Lab Technician is critical

The role of a Medical Lab Technician is critical Cleaning and care of general laboratory Glassware and equipment. Diagnostics plays prominent role in the field of Medicine. Proper diagnosis of the disease plays an important role in concluding the patients condition without which medical treatment/ surgery can not be obtained. The role of a Medical Lab Technician is critical for proper diagnosis and interpretation of results. Clinical studies in the fields of Medicine, Pharamacutical Industries, and Nutrition etc. also require the technicians. 1.1. Introduction to Medical Lab Technology Medical Laboratory Technology also called Clinical laboratory science is an allied health profession which is concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease through the use of clinical laboratory tests. It is a combination of the techniques along with the application of theoretical knowledge to perform complex procedures on tissue specimens, blood samples and other body fluids. They look for bacteria, parasites, and other microorganisms; analyze the chemical content of fluids; match blood for transfusions; and test for drug levels in the blood that show how a patient is responding to treatment. The tests which are performed provide critical information enabling physicians to diagnose, treat and monitor a patients condition. A Medical Laboratory Technologist (MLT) do these tests by analyzing body fluids, tissues, blood typing, microorganism screening, chemical analyses, cell counts of human body etc. The process carried out by a technician is Collection of the patients information Sampling Testing of samples Reporting and documentation of the results They determine the presence, extent or absence of disease and provide data needed to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. The various application of medical lab technology include, Laboratory Technicians is required in various departments in medical and Pharmacy colleges In diagnostic centers In hospitals of various sectors Quality control RD sectors of Drug Manufacturing units Clinical studies in various laboratories National Institute of Nutrition Central Drug Research Laboratory Molecular Biology Labs With increasing automation and the use of computer technology, the work of technologists and technicians has become less hands-on and more analytical. The complexity of tests performed, the level of judgment needed, and the amount of responsibility workers assume depend largely on the amount of education and experience they have. Clinical laboratory technologists usually do more complex tasks than clinical laboratory technicians do. There are two levels of medical laboratory workers Technologists Technicians Technologists: Medical technologists have more training and job responsibilities. They perform complex tests such as microscopic examinations of tissues, blood and other body fluids to detect evidence of disease and detect the presence of bacteria, fungi, parasites etc and chemical tests to determine blood cholesterol levels. They also match blood samples for transfusions and test drug levels in blood to determine how patients are responding to medications. They are often responsible for making sure that testing is done accurately. In some labs, technologists conduct research under the supervision of medical researchers. Medical technologists work in five major areas of the laboratory Blood banking Clinical Chemistry (chemical analysis of body fluids) Hematology (blood related) Immunology (study of immune system) Microbiology (study of bacteria and other disease organisms) Clinical chemistry technologists: They prepare specimens and analyze the chemical and hormonal contents of body fluids. Microbiology technologists: They examine and identify bacteria and other microorganisms. Blood bank technologists: Also referred as immunohematology technologists, collect, type, and prepare blood and its components for transfusions. Immunology technologists examine elements of the human immune system and its response to foreign bodies. Cytotechnologists: They prepare slides of body cells and examine these cells microscopically for abnormalities that may signal the beginning of a cancerous growth. Molecular biology technologists: They perform complex protein and nucleic acid testing on cell samples. Technicians: Medical technicians do routine laboratory testing manually according to instructions. They work under Technologists or supervisors. Technicians may prepare specimens and operate machines that automatically analyze samples. In addition to running tests, technicians set up, clean, and maintain laboratory equipment, such as centrifuges, microscopes etc. They also prepare standard solutions for use in the lab. This involves measuring and mixing the correct amount of various chemicals. ___________________________________________________________________ 1.2. ROLE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY TECHNOLOGIST: _____________________________________________________________________ A Clinical Laboratory Scientists role is to provide accurate laboratory results in a timely manner. Safeguards, such as experimental controls, calibration of laboratory instruments, delta checks and periodic surveys should be carried out. Medical laboratory technologists work in a dynamic and evolving environment, and use technological equipment to provide information that must be processed rapidly and accurately. The major role of clinical lab technologists is: They perform a full range of laboratory tests from simple prenatal blood tests, to more complex tests to uncover diseases such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes, and cancer. They are responsible for confirming the accuracy of test results, and reporting laboratory findings to pathologists and other physicians. The information result given by the lab technologist influences the medical treatment a patient will receive. They operate complex electronic equipment, computers, and precision instruments costing millions of dollars. They assist doctors and nurses in choosing the correct lab tests and ensure proper collection methods. They receive the patient specimens, analyze the specimens, interpret and report results. A pathologist may confirm a diagnostic result, but often the medical lab technologist is responsible for interpreting and communicating critical patient results to the physician. They should recognize anomalies in their test results and know how to correct problems with the instrumentation. They take preventive measures to minimize errors and reject contaminated or sub-standard specimens. Role of Medical Laboratory Technologist: The medical technician has the job of carrying out the more basic tasks and his responsibilities include: Ensuring that the laboratory and the equipments and glassware used in laboratory remains clean. Proper placement of chemical, equipments and glassware. Ensuring that there are proper labels pasted on the bottles of chemicals and reagents. The equipment used in the lab is in proper shape and handled carefully and proper safety measures are observed when handling specimens. All specimens and other material in the lab are disposed off in a safe and appropriate manner. A complete record of tests carried out in the laboratory is maintained. Fresh material is indented through a medical officer and the material is stored in a proper and safe fashion. Common tests performed in a clinical lab are: Complete blood count (CBC) Comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) Liver function tests (LFT) Renal function tests (RFT) Thyroid function test (TFT) Urine analysis Hematological analysis Lipid profile Semen analysis (for fertility and post-vasectomy studies) Serological studies Routine cultures. ______________________________________________________________________ 1.3. ETHICS: ______________________________________________________________________ The medical lab technologists are bound by the ethical codes. Laboratories shall not engage in practices restricted by law and should uphold the reputation of their profession. The medical lab technologists are required to adhere to the following code of ethics The general idea of healthcare ethics is the welfare of the patient. The laboratory should treat all patients fairly and without discrimination. The main aim of laboratory ethics is collecting the proper information of the patient, which enables the requested examinations and other laboratory procedures to be carried out Safety of staff and other patients are legitimate concerns when communicable diseases are possible and information may be collected for these purposes. All the information is collected with the knowledge of the patient and the patients should be informed regarding the procedure carried out. Forcing some one to undergo medical testing of any kind is an invasion of privacy and a violation of human rights. Special procedures, including the more invasive procedures, will require a more detailed explanation and, in some cases, written consent. The result of the test should be kept strictly confidential and to be reveled only with the concern of the patient. The laboratory should endeavor to see that results with serious implications are not communicated directly to the patient without the opportunity for adequate counseling. Procedures that are carried out should be published in established/authoritative textbooks, peer-reviewed texts or journals or in international, national or regional guidelines. Any manipulation of result is completely unacceptable. The results should be reported to the doctor and may be reported to other parties with the patients consent or as required by law. The laboratory results should be correctly interpreted and applied in the patients best interest. All records should be legible and stored such that they are readily retrievable. Records may be stored on any appropriate medium subject to national, regional or local legal requirements. As per National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL) guidelines, the minimum period for retention of test reports issued shall be five years for histopathology and cytopathology and one year for other disciplines. _____________________________________________________________________ 1.4. Responsibilities of medical lab technologist _____________________________________________________________________ Medical laboratory technologists perform examinations with a microscope, perform complex tests, analyze the results, and report them to the medical professional for diagnostic use. Medical Laboratory Technologists operate a variety of complicated instruments. They must have good motor skills, hand-eye coordination and manual dexterity. In addition to technical skills, they must have a strong attention to detail in order to detect subtle change to the microscopic appearance of blood, tissue and bacterial cells. MLTs must also determine the validity of the results they obtain, which requires analytical and critical thinking. MLTs work in an ever-evolving environment, and on occasion need to design new procedures to reflect the rapid pace of change in their workplace. Whether working alone or as a member of a team, the MLT must be able to manage time efficiently and communicate clearly. Responsibilities of medical lab technologists usually include: Conducting advanced chemical, bacteriological, immunologic, biological and hematological tests Examining specimens with microscopes Making cultures of tissues and body fluids to reveal parasites, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms Analyzing chemical content, chemical reactions and blood concentrations of certain compounds Typing and cross-matching samples of blood for transfusions Evaluating results of tests Establishing and modifying programs and procedures to ensure quality control and test accuracy Supervision of medical lab technicians (also known as clinical lab technicians). The medical technician has the job of carrying out the more basic tasks and his responsibilities include Ensuring that the laboratory and the equipments and glassware used in laboratory remains clean. Proper placement of chemical, equipments and glassware. Ensuring that there are proper labels pasted on the bottles of chemicals and reagents. The equipment used in the lab is in proper shape and handled carefully and proper safety measures are observed when handling specimens. All specimens and other material in the lab are disposed off in a safe and appropriate manner. A complete record of tests carried out in the laboratory is maintained. Fresh material is indented through a medical officer and the material is stored in a proper and safe fashion. _____________________________________________________________________ 1.5. Safety Measures and First Aid _____________________________________________________________________ Safety is not just a concept but it is a habit which must be developed by every person associated with the medical laboratory field. One should remain attentive and cautious during the time he or she is inside the laboratory as a small mistake can lead to a grave situation. The personnel working in the medical laboratory must be aware of the how to handle the chemicals, glassware, specimen and equipments etc. as mishandling or improper handling may lead to serious injury or contamination and is dangerous to life. Certain basic safety steps that must be followed in the laboratory are Keep the workplace clean and organized. Label all storage areas, refrigerators, etc., appropriately, and keep all chemicals in properly labeled containers. Date all bottles when received and when opened. Note expiration dates on chemicals. Note special storage conditions. Be aware of how to handle and store hazardous materials such as Flammables Radioactive Compounds Corrosives Biohazards Toxics Carcinogens Reactive Compressed Gases Follow the safety instructions for handling chemicals and segregate chemicals by compatibility groups for storage. Be aware of the potential interactions of lab furniture and equipment with chemicals used or stored in the lab. (e.g., are oxidizers stored directly on wooden shelving?) Post warning signs for unusual hazards such as flammable materials, biohazards or other special problems. Use equipment only for its designated purpose. Position and secure apparatus properly to avoid any damage to personnel or equipment. Use protective clothing all the time (e.g. lab coat, face mask, gloves etc.) Do not smoke, eat or drink in the laboratory. Ensure proper disposal of waste generated from the laboratory. Clinical lab technologists generally deal with infectious samples. Therefore proper methods of infection control and sterilization are followed, few hazards exist. Protective masks, gloves, and goggles often are necessary to ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. First Aid in Laboratory Accidents: Accidents in the lab may result from either chemicals including acids or alkalis coming in contact with any body part or toxic substances or from heat of flames, hot liquids, explosions etc. Broken glass or contamination from infected material or specimen and electric shock might also lead to accidents. The first thing to be followed is that one should not panic and handle the situation in a more calm and composed manner. Some of the first aid procedures for accidents from the above mentioned sources are as under First Aid for accident caused by acid burn or contact: Wash immediately with good amount of water preferably running water and in case of larger spills safety shower should be used. After washing apply neutralizer or 5% sodium carbonate solution on skin and in case acid gets into the eye then administer 4 drops of 2% aqueous sodium bi-carbonate solution. In case the acid is consumed then make the patient drink 5% soap solution or give him two egg whites mixed with 500 ml of milk or water. In the event of non availability of these two make the person drink lot of ordinary water. Consult a physician. First Aid for Alkali burns Instantaneously wash with large amounts of water and do it repeatedly. Once washed apply a 5% acetic acid or undiluted vinegar solution to the affected portion of the skin. In case the alkali has got into the eye then after washing use a saturated solution of boric acid and repeatedly pour drops in the eye. In case the alkali has been swallowed then give a 5% acetic acid or lemon juice or diluted vinegar solution to the patient and after that make the person drink 3 to 4 glasses of ordinary water. Refer to a physician. First aid in case of Poisoning In case of oral poisoning induce vomiting by making the patient drink warm salt water to drink and keep on repeating it till the vomit is clear. However in case of the chemical which the person has consumed is a acid, solvent or alkali or the person in unconscious then do not try to induce vomit. Call for medical aid immediately. If the poisoning is caused by gas then instantaneously take the victim out of the affected area and make him or her lie down in a horizontal position. Consult a doctor urgently. In the event of percutaneous poisoning, remove the contaminated clothes immediately and wash the affected region. Call for medical aid immediately. In all the cases of poisoning, awareness of the toxicity of chemical substance can be helpful while administering medical aid. Burns resulting from Heat The burns that occur due to heat arising flames or hot liquids or explosions etc. can be majorly classified into two categories i.e. the major or severe burns where a large part of the body is affected and it is mostly 2nd or 3rd degree burn and the other is minor or small burns in which a small portion of the body gets affected and it is mostly a 1st degree burn. In case of minor burns dip the affected part in ice cold water for some time and repeat the same. After that apply ointment on it. Refer to a physician. For major burns if the person is on fire then roll the person in a blanket to douse the flames. After that make the person lay down and try to calm him. Call for medical help immediately and do not apply any medicine. First aid for injuries resulting from broken glass In case of small cuts or injuries wash the wound at the same time and try to remove glass pieces if any. Apply mercurochrome or acriflavine ointment on it and cover the wound with gauze and adhesive tape. In case of deep cuts or when there is plenty of bleeding then try to stop the bleeding by pressing down on it with a compress. Call for immediate medical help. Contamination by infected material Injuries resulting from broken glassware which contained infected material or specimen fall under this category. For these types of injuries the advisable first aid is Instantaneously wash the wound with clean water. In case the cut is not bleeding then make it bleed by squeezing hard for a couple of minutes. Using antiseptic lotion wash the complete area including the edges of the cut and the wound. After that wash it with soapy water and then again with antiseptic lotion. Refer a doctor. First aid in case of electric shock Electric shock might result from faulty equipment or carelessness like using wet hands on electrical equipment etc. and can cause the person to faint or asphyxia. In such a case first switch off the main switch. Immediately start giving mouth to mouth respiration. Call for medical help simultaneously. Every laboratory must have the first aid equipment which includes, 1. First Aid Box containing instruction sheet with general guidance, sterile adhesive dressings in different sizes, a bottle containing eye drops, scissors, sterile eye pads, safety pins, antiseptic lotion, sterile eye pads and first aid manual. 2. Sodium Carbonate 5% solution. 3. 2% sodium bi-carbonate solution 4. Boric Acid saturated solution. 5. Antiseptic lotion 6. Soap powder solution (per liter of water add 5g) 7. 5% Acetic acid solution 8. Cotton wool and gauze 9. Rolled Bandage 10. Adhesive tape 11. Mercurochrome and iodine tincture. _____________________________________________________________________ 1.6. CLEANING AND CARE OF GENERAL LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND EQUIPMENTS ______________________________________________________________________ Cleaning of Glassware: For getting successful results from the experiments performed in a laboratory it is essential that the glassware gets perfectly cleaned. However cleaning of laboratory glassware is not a very easy task. Glassware has to be clean physically, chemically as well as free of any germs. Much of the time, detergent and tap water are neither required nor desirable. You can rinse the glassware with the proper solvent, and then finish up with a couple of rinses with distilled water, followed by final rinses with deionized water. Washing Glassware: Rinse the glassware with the appropriate solvent. Rinse with other solvents as needed, followed by ethanol and finally deionized water. If the glassware requires scrubbing, scrub with a brush using hot soapy water, rinse thoroughly with tap water, followed by rinses with deionized water. Some of the commonly used lab glass wares are: Burette: Wash with hot soapy water, rinse thoroughly with tap water, and then rinse 3-4 times with deionized water. Be sure the final rinses sheet off of the glass. Burettes need to be thoroughly clean to be used for quantitative lab work. Pipettes: The glassware is soaked overnight in soapy water. Clean the pipettes using warm soapy water. The glassware may require scrubbing with a brush. Rinse with tap water followed by 3-4 rinses with deionized water. Volumetric Flasks: Wash the flask with soapy water and then rinse 3-4 times with deionized water. Glassware should be allowed to air dry on the shelf. It should not be dries using a paper towel or forced air since this can introduce fibers or impurities that can contaminate the solution. If glassware is to be used immediately after washing and must be dry, rinse it 2-3 times with acetone. This will remove any water and will evaporate quickly. Glass Slides Cover Glass Slides should first be washed, and then placed in solution containing glacial acetic acid for around 10 minutes. Afterwards the slides and cover glass are thoroughly rinsed with distilled water and then wiped perfectly dry using paper towels or clean cloth. As soon as this is done they should be placed in a wide jar containing alcohol. Culture Tubes Culture tubes should be sterilized prior to cleaning. Culture tubes should be autoclave it for half an hour at around 121 °C (15 p.s.i. pressure). The tubes when emptied must be brushed with water and detergent and then rinsed with running tap water. After this it should be rinsed with distilled water, and placed properly for drying. Detergents used for washing Most detergents are very effective for most cleaning problems encountered. However for best results the detergents made especially for laboratory glassware must be used. Some of the commonly used detergents are sulfuric dichromate and acid-alcohol. Maintenance of Equipments The increasing level of technical sophistication and complexity found in clinical laboratory instrumentation today more than ever demands careful attention to maintenance service needs. The time-worn caution for careful definition of requirements for acquisition of a system should also carry over to maintenance service of these equipments. Certain common type of laboratory equipment and their proper usage care is as under: Microscope Microscope the most vital equipment in the laboratory which is used for magnifying a small object or image by 100, 400 or even 1000 times of the original size. Microscope is made up of two words micro scope wherein micro means small and scope means to view. A laboratory may have various microscopes depending upon what is their power, usage etc. Being aware of the importance of microscope its care and cleaning must also be give due importance so that the equipment gives correct results. Some of the cleaning procedures to be followed are Dust should be cleaned off with pressurized air or with a soft brush Clean smudges, fingerprints, oils, etc from the lens with clean lens paper or a soft clean cloth moistened with a small amount of absolute alcohol-ether mixture. If an alcohol-ether mixture is unavailable, use isopropyl alcohol Clean the microscope body and stand using a moist, soft cloth with a small amount of detergent. Working temperatures are: 32 ° F-104 ° F (0 °C-40 °C). Max. relative humidity: 85% Use water only on plastic surfaces Do not use paint thinner or other solvents Do a final wipe with a moist soft cloth Dry all surfaces after cleaning Besides these cleaning processes the daily care which must be ensured while handling the microscope include Always cover the microscope with the supplied dust cover when not in use Store in a dry place In humid or moist environments, it is advisable to store the microscope in a waterproof container with a drying agent Do not touch the optical lens with bare fingers Do not store the microscope in direct sunlight. Sunlight can influence the quality of the specimen imaging. Lift the microscope with both hands. As almost all the procedures of a medical laboratory require the use of microscope so as such handling it in a proper fashion is mandatory. Photometer or Calorimeter The photometer is a device which is used to measure optical density or color intensity or absorbance of solutions. Based on the arrangement of obtaining monochromatic light, the photometers are categorized as filter photometers or spectrophotometers. The normal precautions to be observed while handling photometers are as under Do not pour out samples or prepare the tests directly over the instrument. Always cap the test tubes after preparing the blank and test sample. Wipe test tubes with a clean tissue to remove drips or condensation before placing in the photometer. Do not leave tubes standing in the photometer test chamber. Remove the tubes immediately after each test. Immediately wipe up any drips or spills on the instrument or in the test chamber with a clean tissue. Keep the instrument clean. Clean the test chamber regularly using a moistened tissue or cotton ball. Keep the instrument away from all chemicals and cleaning materials. Keep the instrument in a clean, dry place when it is not in use. Keep it on a clean, dry bench away from chemicals, place it in a storage cupboard or keep it in a carrying case. Keep the carrying case in a clean, dry condition. Make sure that the carrying case is dry before the case is closed up and the instrument is put away. Centrifuge A centrifuge is a an equipment, generally driven by an electric motor or spun by hand, that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes more dense substances to separate out along the radial direction. By the same token, lighter objects will tend to move to the top. There are various types of centrifuges preparative centrifuge analytical centrifuge angle fixed centrifuge swing head centrifuge haematocrit centrifuge Industrial centrifuges may otherwise be classified according to the type of separation of the high density fraction from the low density one Screen centrifuges, where the centrifugal acceleration allows the liquid to pass through a screen of some sort, through which the solids cannot go (due to granulometry larger than the screen gap or due to agglomeration). Common types are: Pusher centrifuges Peeler centrifuges Decanter centrifuges, in which there is no physical separation between the solid and liquid phase, rather an accelerated settling due to centrifugal acceleration. Common types are: Solid bowl centrifuges Conical plate centrifuges In order to ensure proper working of the equipment certain care and maintenance procedures should be followed like Inspect the centrifuge chamber for accumulations of sample, dust of glass particles from broken glass tubes and clean appropriately to ensure that no unwanted particle is left in the chamber. Centrifuge tubes made of strong glass must be used in the machine. The centrifuge speed should be increased gradually. Disinfecting centrifuges is very necessary to maintain the precision of the tests being carried out. Take proper care of the rotor in terms of cleaning and keeping it scratch free by not using steel wool, wire brush or abrasives etc for cleaning. Never pour water directly into the sample chamber. Autoclave An autoclave is a device to sterilize equipment and supplies by subjecting them to high pressure steam at 121  Ã‚ °C or more, typically for 15 to 20 minutes depending on the size of the load and the contents. There are mainly two types of autoclaves Stove Type Autoclave Front Loading Autoclave Following are recommendations for the care and use of autoclaves The steam should be saturated and free from corrosion inhibitors or other chemicals, which could contaminate the items being sterilised. All materials to be autoclaved should be in containers that allow ready removal of air and permit good heat penetration; the chamber should not be tightly packed or steam will not reach the load evenly. Bags should allow the steam to reach their contents. For autoclaves without an interlocking safety device that prevents the door being opened when the chamber is pressurized, the main steam valve should be closed and the temperature allowed to fall below 80C